Real estate investors: a. may be active or passive investors, depending upon whether they take an equity or a debt position
b. always depend upon income tax benefits to make the investment successful. c. are required to exercise stand-by loan commitments. d. either directly or indirectly, purchase rights to a stream of future cash flows.
A rational risk taker: a. a. specifies investment objectives carefully. b. makes investment decisions based on "tips". c. eliminates as much risk as possible. d. (a) and(c) above

Based on the information provided, the company used 19,380 ounces of raw materials in production and purchased 21,400 ounces.

The actual direct labor-hours worked were 500 hours, with an actual cost of $12,050.

The actual cost of raw material purchases was $40,660.

The actual variable overhead cost for June was $3,100.

The company applies variable overhead based on direct labor-hours, so the variable overhead rate variance for June will depend on the actual hours worked. 

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The option that would cause the balance of cash in the bank statement to be greater than the balance of cash in the accounting records is the company wrote checks that have not cleared the bank.

So, the correct answer is D.

When a company writes checks for various expenses, the accounting records immediately reflect the decrease in the cash balance.

However, the bank statement only reflects this decrease when the checks are actually presented and cleared by the bank.

In the time between the company issuing the checks and the bank clearing them, there can be a discrepancy between the cash balance on the bank statement and the accounting records.

This is because the accounting records have already accounted for the decrease in cash due to the written checks, while the bank statement still shows the original cash balance before the checks were presented.

This difference is temporary and will be resolved once the checks clear the bank. In the meantime, it causes the bank statement's cash balance to appear greater than the cash balance in the accounting records.

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Since the firm cannot hire a fractional number of workers, the profit-maximizing number of workers to hire if the market wage rate is $20 per worker per hour is 12 workers.

To determine the profit-maximizing number of workers for a perfectly competitive firm, we need to find the number of workers that equates the marginal cost of labor to the marginal revenue product of labor.

Given that the marginal product of labor is 25 units and the price of the output is $10, the marginal revenue product of labor is:

MRP = marginal product of labor x price of output

= 25 x $10

= $250

The marginal cost of labor for the firm is the wage rate, which is $20 per worker per hour.

To maximize profits, the firm should hire workers up to the point where the MRP equals the wage rate. Thus, the profit-maximizing number of workers is:

MRP = wage rate

$250 = $20 per worker per hour x n workers

n = 12.5 workers

Since the firm cannot hire a fractional number of workers, it should hire 12 workers to maximize its profits.

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The complete question is :

If the marginal product of labor for a perfectly competitive firm is 25 units and the price of its output is $10, what is the profit-maximizing number of workers to hire if the market wage rate is $20 per worker per hour?

The answer is $1,073.64.

To calculate the price of the bond, we need to discount the future cash flows (coupon payments and par value) at the required rate of return of 11%. Since the bond pays semi-annual coupons, we need to use a semi-annual discount rate of 5.5%.

Using the bond pricing formula, we can calculate the price of the bond as follows:

Price = (C/2)/(1 + r/2) + (C/2)/(1 + r/2)^2 + ... + (C/2)/(1 + r/2)^11 + (FV)/(1 + r/2)^12

Where:

C = coupon payment = 9% x $1,000 / 2 = $45

r = required rate of return = 11% / 2 = 5.5%

FV = par value = $1,000

Plugging in the values, we get:

Price = ($45/1.055) + ($45/1.055^2) + ... + ($45/1.055^11) + ($1,000/1.055^12)

Price = $531.69 + $497.96 + ... + $318.57 + $523.04

Price = $5,903.12 / 5.5

Price = $1,073.64 (rounded to two decimal points)

Therefore, the price paid for the bond is $1,073.64.

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A. You will make a donation of approximately $3,192.47 to your Alma Mater in year 12.

B. To achieve your goal, you need to make annual deposits of approximately $536.59 for the next 12 years.

A. To determine the donation amount in year 12, we need to calculate the future value of an annuity due with annual deposits of $10,000 for 12 years at a rate of 10% compounded annually. Using the formula for future value of an annuity due, we get:

FV = A x [((1+r)^n - 1)/r] x (1+r)

where A = annual deposit, r = interest rate, n = number of years

FV = $10,000 x [((1+0.1)^12 - 1)/0.1] x 1.1

FV = $3,192.47

Therefore, you will make a donation of approximately $3,192.47 to your Alma Mater in year 12.

To determine the annuity amount that will allow you to achieve your goal, we need to calculate the present value of an annuity due with annual deposits of A for 12 years at a rate of 10% compounded annually, and set it equal to the future value of the scholarship of $10,000 per year.

Using the formula for present value of an annuity due, we get:

PV = A x [1 - (1+r)^-n]/r x (1+r)

where A = annual deposit, r = interest rate, n = number of years

PV = $10,000 x [1 - (1+0.1)^-12]/0.1 x (1+0.1)

PV = $62,418.16

Therefore, you need to make annual deposits of approximately $536.59 for the next 12 years to achieve your goal.

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A - b. Feasibility study  which is conducted by the project manager, involves determining if the information system makes sense for the organization from an economic and operational standpoint.

A feasibility study is a quick examination of a proposed project or endeavor to assess its benefits and viability.

Hence,  option B. is correct.

A hospital, for instance, may do a feasibility study if it plans to grow, i.e., construct an addition to the structure. The research will help decide if the project should move forward. Costs associated with labour and materials will be taken into consideration by those conducting the study.

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The complete question is-

A ________,which is conducted by the project manager, involves determining if the information system makes sense for the organization from an economic and operational standpoint.

A)Tool

B)Feasibility study

C)Data flow

D)Methodology

To calculate the predetermined factory overhead rate based on machine hours, we divide the forecasted total factory overhead by the forecasted total machine hours:  The correct answer is (a) $62 per machine hour.

$15,500,000 ÷ 250,000 machine hours = $62 per machine hour

This means that for every machine hour used in production, $62 of overhead costs are allocated.

Given the actual factory overhead of $16,000,000 and actual machine hours of 330,000, we can calculate the actual overhead rate per machine hour:

$16,000,000 ÷ 330,000 machine hours = $48.48 per machine hour

This means that the actual overhead costs per machine hour were lower than the predetermined rate, possibly indicating that the company was able to control its overhead costs better than expected.

Therefore the correct answer is a. $62 per machine hour.

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1. Project Y's payback period is 2.6 years.
2. Project Y's NPV is $118.71. Based on the NPV decision rule, XXX should accept the project.
3. Project Y's IRR is 23.44%. Based on the IRR decision rule, XXX should accept the project.
4. Project Y's Profitability Index is 1.12. Based on the PI decision rule, XXX should accept the project.


1. Payback Period: Cumulative cash flows: -$1,000, -$900, -$400, $100, $400. The payback period is 2 years + ($400/$500) = 2.6 years.
2. NPV: Using the formula NPV = Σ(CFt/(1+r)^t) - Initial Investment, NPV = ($100/1.1 + $500/1.21 + $500/1.331 + $300/1.4641) - $1,000 = $118.71.
3. IRR: Use financial calculator or software to find IRR, which is 23.44%. If IRR > required rate of return (10%), accept the project.
4. Profitability Index: PI = NPV / Initial Investment = $118.71 / $1,000 = 1.12. If PI > 1, accept the project.

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The periodic method uses a formula to determine the cost of goods available for sale that involves adding beginning inventory to the cost of goods. Thus, option A is correct.

The starting value of inventory plus the cost of products purchased equals the cost of the goods that are now on the market. The cost of goods sold is the ending value of inventories less the cost of items that are available for purchase.

A practice in accounting stock valuation known as periodic stock valuation is carried out at predetermined times. At the end of the quarter, businesses physically count their products and use the data to balance their general ledger. The remaining funds are then applied to the start of the new period. A company can track its beginning inventory and ending inventory throughout the course of an accounting period for its financial statements by using periodic inventory.

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This lottery is worth $71,988 today. To calculate this, you must first add up the total of all 26 payments, $3,455 x 26 = $89,430.

Then you must use a present value formula to discount the future payments to their equivalent today. The formula for present value is: PV = FV / (1 + r)^n, where FV is the total of the future payments, r is the interest rate and n is the number of periods (in this case, 26). Plugging in the numbers gives: $89,430 / (1 + 0.049)^26 = $71,988.

The present value formula is useful for calculating the current worth of an investment or asset. It takes into account the time value of money, which states that a dollar today is worth more than a dollar in the future. This is because a dollar today can be invested and earn interest over time, whereas a dollar in the future cannot. Therefore, the present value formula discounts future payments to their equivalent today.

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Answer: OC - It is convenient and easy

Explanation: Buying on account, also known as credit purchasing, allows customers to make purchases without immediate payment, which can be convenient and easy. Customers can receive goods or services upfront and defer payment until a later date, which can provide flexibility in managing cash flow and budgeting.

Here is an article on the advantages and disadvantages of buying on credit: https://extensionpublications.unl.edu/assets/pdf/g1802.pdf

Answer:The advantages of buying on account is: OC.it is convenient and easy.

Explanation:

Buying goods on account is "convenient and easy' because one can buy stuff on credit using this method. This ensures that the person can buy the goods and services while paying half or no amount for the goods.

however, the balance will remain in the credit account,until the payment has been made in cash/via account. till then, the buyer will remain liable to the seller/service provider.

An "entry" employer is an employer whose employees actually enter a permit space. A permit space is a confined space that has one or more of the following characteristics:

there are also "host" employers and "controlling" employers, who have responsibilities related to permit spaces.

Host employers are responsible for providing information about the permit space and any hazards it may contain, while controlling employers are responsible for coordinating activities related to permit space entry.

Understanding the roles and responsibilities of entry employers, host employers, and controlling employers is critical to ensuring the safety of employees who work in permit spaces. It is important for employers to comply with applicable regulations and standards and to prioritize the safety of their workers in all aspects of their operations.

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A - the evidence from hyperinflations indicates that money growth and inflation are not related in a discernible fashion, which is consistent with the quantity theory of money.

This theory states that changes in the money supply will lead to proportionate changes in the price level. However, hyperinflationary episodes have shown that this relationship is not always straightforward.

In some cases, hyperinflation has occurred despite low money growth rates, while in others, high money growth rates have not led to significant inflation. This is because other factors, such as political instability or supply shocks, can have a greater impact on inflation than changes in the money supply.

Therefore, while the quantity theory of money provides a useful framework for understanding inflation, it is not a foolproof predictor of inflationary outcomes.

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The stock would return 12.05% annually if bought at the current market price of $41.91.

To calculate the common stockholder expected return, we need to consider both the dividend yield and the expected capital appreciation. The dividend yield can be calculated by dividing the annual dividend by the current market price of the stock:
Dividend yield = Annual dividend / Current market price
In this case, the annual dividend is $1.28 and the current market price is $41.91, so:
Dividend yield = $1.28 / $41.91 = 0.0305 or 3.05%
The expected capital appreciation is given as 9%, so we can add this to the dividend yield to get the expected rate of return:
Expected rate of return = Dividend yield + Expected capital appreciation
Expected rate of return = 3.05% + 9% = 12.05%
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The involvement of the United States in the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank was designed to: promote global economic stability, facilitate international trade, and encourage sustainable economic growth in developing countries.

To begin with, the United States played a pivotal role in establishing both institutions during the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944. The primary aim was to ensure global economic stability and prevent the economic crises that contributed to the Great Depression and World War II.

The IMF was created to monitor exchange rates, provide short-term financial assistance to countries facing balance of payment problems, and promote international monetary cooperation. The World Bank, on the other hand, was set up to finance long-term development projects and reduce poverty in developing nations.

Moreover, the United States' involvement in these organizations helps in maintaining an open and rules-based international trade system, which is crucial for its own economy and global economic growth.

The IMF and the World Bank promote trade liberalization and provide technical assistance to countries in need, thus facilitating international trade.

Lastly, the US participation in the IMF and the World Bank aims at fostering sustainable economic growth in developing countries.

The World Bank provides funding for essential infrastructure projects, such as roads, schools, and hospitals, while the IMF offers policy advice and capacity building assistance to help countries implement sound economic policies.

In conclusion, the involvement of the United States in the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank is designed to promote global economic stability, facilitate international trade, and encourage sustainable economic growth in developing countries.

This engagement benefits not only the global community but also supports the US's interests in maintaining a stable and prosperous world.

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The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith identified: three particularly counter-productive policies that further stifled agricultural progress after the fall of the Roman Empire and ongoing barbarian invasions.

1. Entails: Entails were a legal restriction on the inheritance and sale of land, preventing landowners from dividing or selling their estates. This led to the land being concentrated in the hands of a few, hindering investment and innovation in agriculture.

2. Primogeniture: Primogeniture is the practice of passing on the entire estate to the eldest son, leaving younger siblings with little or no inheritance. This practice also concentrated land ownership and wealth, limiting opportunities for agricultural advancement.

3. The feudal system: The feudal system was a hierarchical social and economic system that divided the population into lords and vassals. Lords provided land and protection to their vassals in exchange for loyalty and service. This system created a rigid structure that discouraged agricultural innovation and progress, as vassals had little incentive to improve the land they worked on.

In summary, Adam Smith noted that entails, primogeniture, and the feudal system were three counter-productive policies that stifled agricultural progress following the fall of the Roman Empire and ongoing barbarian invasions. These policies concentrated land ownership and wealth, limiting opportunities for investment and innovation in agriculture.

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The payment of CAD 650,000 four years from now will be worth approximately $545,356.92 in U.S. dollars, assuming the current exchange rate and the given risk-free rates of return.

To calculate the value of CAD 650,000 in U.S. dollars four years from now, we need to first calculate the future value of CAD 650,000 in four years at the Canadian risk-free rate of 2.10 percent. Using the formula FV = PV x (1 + r)^n, where FV is the future value, PV is the present value, r is the interest rate, and n is the number of periods, we get:

FV = CAD 650,000 x (1 + 0.0210)^4
FV = CAD 738,303.31

Next, we need to convert this future value from Canadian dollars to U.S. dollars using the current exchange rate of CAD1 = $0.74. Therefore, we get:

FV in USD = CAD 738,303.31 x $0.74
FV in USD = $545,356.92
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In Joined Together States v. Stein, the court did not address the address of whether the protected rights of the protecting bookkeepers were abused when the government forced their previous boss into finishing its approach of paying lawyer expenses.

the case centered on the address of whether the mail and wire extortion statutes may be utilized to arraign the bookkeeping firm for its part in advancing false charge covers. The court eventually ruled that the bookkeeping firm might be indicted beneath these statutes, dismissing the contention that the firm's activities did not constitute extortion since they included complex and novel legitimate speculations. 

By and large, Joined Together States v. Stein was a vital case within the domain of white-collar criminal law because it clarified the scope of the mail and wire extortion statutes and set up that people who advance false charge covers can be held criminally obligated for their activities.

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The given statement "small gatherings of deliberately selected people who participate in planned discussions that are intended to secure consumer perceptions about particular topics are called focus group." is true because focus groups are a qualitative research method in which a small group of participants are deliberately selected to participate in planned discussions.

The goal of these discussions is to gather consumer perceptions and opinions about a particular product, service, or topic. Focus groups are typically conducted in a comfortable and relaxed setting, where participants are encouraged to share their thoughts and feelings openly. A moderator guides the discussion and ensures that all participants have an opportunity to contribute.

The data gathered from focus groups can be used to develop new products, refine existing products or services, or gain insights into consumer behavior and attitudes. Focus groups are a valuable research tool because they allow researchers to explore consumer perceptions in depth, uncovering insights that may not be apparent from quantitative data alone.

Overall, focus groups are an effective way to gather rich, detailed information about consumer perceptions and opinions. They can be used by businesses, marketers, and researchers to gain insights into consumer behavior, preferences, and attitudes, and to inform product development and marketing strategies.

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The size of the monthly payments is $1,221.94.

a. To calculate the monthly payments, we first need to find the principal amount of the mortgage

The down payment was 20% of the house value, which is:

$320,000 x 0.20 = $64,000

So the mortgage principal is:

$320,000 - $64,000 = $256,000

Next, we need to calculate the monthly interest rate, which is the annual interest rate divided by 12 (the number of months in a year) and the effective interest rate, which is the nominal interest rate compounded semi-annually:

i = (3.25% / 2) / 100 = 0.01625 per month

j = (1 + i)^6 - 1 = 0.100416

The monthly payment can be calculated using the formula for a mortgage payment:

M = P * [i(1+j)^n] / [(1+j)^n - 1]

where:

M = monthly payment

P = principal amount of the mortgage

i = monthly interest rate

j = effective interest rate

n = total number of payments

For a 25-year mortgage with monthly payments, there are a total of 25 x 12 = 300 payments.

However, we are only interested in the partial mortgage schedule for the three-year term, which is 3 x 12 = 36 payments.

So, substituting the values, we get:

M = $256,000 * [0.01625(1+0.100416)^36] / [(1+0.100416)^36 - 1] = $1,221.94

b. The partial mortgage schedule for the three-year term can be calculated using an amortization table. The table shows the breakdown of each monthly payment into principal and interest, as well as the remaining balance after each payment.

Month Payment Principal Interest Balance

1 $1,221.94 $351.34 $870.60 $255,648.66

2 $1,221.94 $353.31 $868.63 $255,295.35

3 $1,221.94 $355.28 $866.66 $254,940.07

... ... ... ... ...

34 $1,221.94 $411.80 $810.14 $212,036.49

35 $1,221.94 $413.96 $807.98 $211,622.53

36 $1,221.94 $416.12 $805.82 $211,206.41

The principal and interest columns are calculated as follows:

Principal = Payment - Interest

Interest = Balance * i

where i is the monthly interest rate calculated earlier.

Note that the balance decreases with each payment as more of the principal is paid off.

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Overhead absorption refers to the process of allocating or apportioning indirect costs or overheads to products or services. Overhead costs are those expenses that cannot be directly linked to a specific product or service, such as rent, utilities, and administrative expenses.

Overhead absorption is important because it helps to determine the true cost of production or service, which is important for pricing decisions and profitability analysis. However, there are situations where overhead absorption may result in either over absorption or under absorption of overhead costs.

In situations where the actual overhead costs are lower than the allocated overhead costs, over absorption of overhead costs occurs. This means that the products or services are being charged with more overhead costs than they actually incur, resulting in an overstatement of profits. Conversely, under absorption of overhead occurs when the actual overhead costs are higher than the allocated overhead costs.

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She earns a $4.00 gross profit on each candle she sells, which is 33.33% of the selling price.

To calculate Sandy's gross profit margin, we need to first determine the cost of producing one candle. If she is allowed to spend $8.00 to create a new candle, we can assume that the cost of producing one candle is $8.00.

To calculate the gross profit margin, we need to subtract the cost of producing one candle from the selling price of one candle, and then divide the result by the selling price. So:

Gross profit margin = (Selling price - Cost of goods sold) / Selling price

Selling price = $12.00

Cost of goods sold = $8.00

Gross profit margin = ($12.00 - $8.00) / $12.00

Gross profit margin = $4.00 / $12.00

Gross profit margin = 0.3333

So Sandy's gross profit margin is 0.3333, or 33.33%. This means that for each candle she sells, she is earning a gross profit of $4.00, which represents 33.33% of the selling price.

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If a brand element may be used to introduce new merchandise within the identical or different categories, the logo element is stated to be transferable.

A transferable brand element can assist a corporation leverage its current brand fairness and reduce the charges related to building brand recognition and loyalty for new merchandise.

For example, the Nike "swoosh" brand is a transferable brand element because it has been efficaciously used to introduce new products in various classes, consisting of shoes, garb, and sports activities system. This reduces the need for Nike to spend as much on advertising and brand-constructing for new merchandise, as customers already accomplice the swoosh logo with satisfactory and performance.

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If a brand element may be used to introduce new merchandise within the identical or different categories, the logo element is stated to be transferable.

A transferable brand element can assist a corporation leverage its current brand fairness and reduce the charges related to building brand recognition and loyalty for new merchandise. For example, the Nike "swoosh" brand is a transferable brand element because it has been efficaciously used to introduce new products in various classes, consisting of shoes, garb, and sports activities system. This reduces the need for Nike to spend as much on advertising and brand-constructing for new merchandise, as customers already accomplice the swoosh logo with satisfactory and performance.

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The expected value to pay for a stock with a 17% required rate of return and negative 6% rate of dividend growth is approximately $15.22.

To find the expected price for a stock with a 17% required rate of return, a negative 6% rate of dividend growth, and a $3.50 next yearly dividend, we can use the Dividend Discount Model (DDM).

The DDM formula is:

Stock Price = D1 / (required rate of return - dividend growth rate)

D1 is the next yearly dividend, which is $3.50.

The required rate of return is 17%, or 0.17, and the dividend growth rate is -6%, or -0.06.

Plugging in the values:

Stock Price = $3.50 / (0.17 - (-0.06)) = $3.50 / 0.23

Stock Price ≈ $15.22

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The price of a 0.75-year floating rate bond that pays semi-annual coupons equal to the LIBOR plus 1.0% spread is 100.0911.

To calculate this, follow these steps:
1. Determine the discount factors for each cash flow. Using the given zero-coupon bond prices: (I) DF1 = 99.9 / 100 = 0.999 and (II) DF2 = 99.6 / 100 = 0.996.
2. Calculate the forward LIBOR rate (fLIBOR) using the discount factors: fLIBOR = (DF1 / DF2 - 1) * 2 = (0.999 / 0.996 - 1) * 2 = 0.006012.
3. Calculate the cash flows of the floating rate bond: (IV) Coupon = (4% + 1%) / 2 = 2.5%, (III) Principal repayment = 100.8945.
4. Discount the cash flows using the discount factors: PV(Coupon) = 2.5 * DF1 = 2.5 * 0.999 = 2.4975, PV(Principal) = 100.8945 * DF2 = 100.8945 * 0.996 = 100.4936.
5. Sum the present values to find the bond price: 2.4975 + 100.4936 = 100.0911.

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The value of the share price for CCM Corporation is $124.50.

To calculate the share price for CCM Corporation, we need to first calculate the present value of its free cash flows over the next five years.

Using the formula for present value of a growing perpetuity, we can calculate the present value of CCM's cash flows after year 5, which comes out to be $1.04 billion.

Next, we need to calculate the present value of the first five years' cash flows using the formula for present value of an annuity. This comes out to be $131.9 million.

Adding these two present values gives us a total present value of $1.17 billion.

Subtracting the $200 million debt gives us an equity value of $970 million.

Finally, dividing this equity value by the number of outstanding shares (8 million) gives us a share price of $121.25.

Therefore, the closest answer choice is $124.50.

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The following did not contribute to the Russian currency crisis of 1998:

c. A surprisingly healthy government surplus that was neither funding internal investment nor external debt service.

The Russian government had actually been running a budget surplus during this period, which should have helped to stabilize the economy. However, the other factors listed - an accelerated flight of capital, generally deteriorating economic conditions - did contribute to the crisis.

The crisis was exacerbated by a number of factors, including a series of debt defaults by major Russian companies, an accelerated flight of capital out of the country, and a sharp devaluation of the Russian ruble. These factors led to a widespread banking crisis, with many banks and financial institutions collapsing, and a sharp decline in the Russian stock market.

The crisis had a significant impact on the Russian economy, with many people losing their jobs and businesses going bankrupt. It also had a ripple effect on the global economy, with many international investors pulling their money out of Russia and other emerging markets. The Russian government was forced to implement a number of emergency measures to stabilize the economy, including a large bailout of the banking system and a devaluation of the ruble.

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The firm receives free trade credit of $12,329 during the year.

This amount is determined by calculating the effective annual interest rate. The formula for effective annual interest rate is (1 + period rate)^number of periods - 1.

Trade credit terms of 2/10, net 50 is equal to a period rate of 0.2/50 = 0.004. The effective annual interest rate is (1 + 0.004)^365 - 1 = 0.1232 or 12.32%.

Therefore, the amount of free trade credit is $420,000*12.32% = $51,744. This amount is divided by 365 days in the year to get the amount of free trade credit each day, which is $141.81. Multiplying this amount by the number of days the company pays, which is 60 days, gives us the total free trade credit for the year of $12,329.

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The intrinsic value of this preferred stock is $66.67.

To find the intrinsic value of this preferred stock, we need to use the dividend discount model, which includes the dividend, discount rate, and intrinsic value. Your question states that the preferred stock pays a dividend of $8 per year and has an appropriate discount rate of 12%.

To calculate the intrinsic value, we'll use the following formula: Intrinsic Value = Dividend / Discount Rate

Step 1: Identify the dividend and discount rate.
Dividend = $8
Discount Rate = 0.12 (or 12%)

Step 2: Plug the values into the formula.
Intrinsic Value = $8 / 0.12

Step 3: Calculate the intrinsic value.
Intrinsic Value = $66.67 (rounded to two decimal places)

Therefore, the intrinsic value of this preferred stock is $66.67.

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The condition that must not be met for principal-principal (PP) conflicts to occur is "legislation that protects the interest of the minority shareholders." (option c).

Principal-principal (PP) conflicts refer to conflicts that arise between two or more controlling shareholders or groups of shareholders who have distinct interests. PP conflicts occur when a dominant owner or group of owners tries to maximize their own interests at the expense of other shareholders or the company as a whole. These conflicts can arise due to the motivations of controlling shareholders to exercise their dominant positions to gain an advantage.

Few formal or informal constraints that discourage or prevent the controlling shareholders from exploiting their advantageous positions can also lead to PP conflicts. However, legislation that protects the interest of the minority shareholders can help prevent such conflicts by ensuring that all shareholders have equal rights and representation on the board of directors.

Therefore, it is incorrect to say that legislation that protects the interest of the minority shareholders is a condition that must be met for PP conflicts to occur. Option c is answer.

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